Julian

Julian (Latin: Flavius Claudius Julianus; Ancient Greek: Ἰουλιανός Ioulianos; 331 – 26 June 363) was Caesar of Western Rome from 355 to 360 and Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, public conversion to paganism, and promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate in the Christian tradition.

A nephew of Constantine the Great, Julian was one of few in the imperial family to survive the purges and civil wars during the reign of Constantius II, his cousin. Julian was orphaned as a child after his father was executed in 337 and spent much of his life under Constantius's close supervision. However, the emperor allowed Julian freedom to pursue an education in the Greek-speaking east. In 355, Constantius II appointed Julian to govern Gaul; his rule was successful, defeating and countering Germanic raids across the Rhine and encouraging the provinces' return to prosperity. In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, having named Julian as his successor to prevent further bloodshed.

In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious military expedition against the Sasanian Empire, mustering the largest Roman army to ever face the Persians. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside the capital of Ctesiphon. However, rather than besiege the city, Julian instead moved into Persia's heartland, where he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishers. During the Battle of Samarra, Julian was mortally wounded. He was succeeded by Jovian, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including Nisibis, in order to save the trapped Roman forces. Julian and Jovian were the last sole emperors to rule the whole Empire for their entire reign, after which it was permanently divided between a Western and Eastern court.